"Despite the popularity of this claim, there are no early, reliable accounts that the apostles were given the opportunity to recant their beliefs before being killed."
Introduction
This page compiles historical data about each apostle, evaluating the evidence for their life, ministry, and death. Sources are categorized by their historical reliability:
Peter (Simon)
Died c. 64-68 CE
Strong EvidencePeter was one of Jesus' closest disciples and traditionally considered the leader of the apostles. His martyrdom in Rome under Emperor Nero has relatively strong historical attestation.
- 1 Clement (c. 95-96 CE): "Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him" (1 Clement 5:4)
- Ignatius to the Romans (c. 110 CE): "I do not command you as Peter and Paul did" - suggests both died in Rome
- John 21:18-19 (c. 90-100 CE): Alludes to Peter dying by crucifixion - "stretching out your hands"
- 2 Peter 1:14 (c. 60-130 CE): "I know that the putting off of my body will be soon, as our Lord Jesus Christ showed me" (this was likely written after Peter's death as pseudopigripha)
- Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170 CE): States Peter and Paul both taught in Italy and were martyred around the same time
- Upside-down crucifixion detail first appears in Acts of Peter (c. 180-200 CE), a non-canonical, legendary text
Paul of Tarsus
Died c. 64-68 CE
Strong EvidenceThough not one of the original Twelve, Paul was an influential apostle who wrote many New Testament epistles. His execution in Rome under Nero has strong historical attestation.
- 1 Clement (c. 95-96 CE): "Paul... having taught righteousness to the whole world and having reached the boundary of the West, and having given testimony before the rulers, so was released from the world..." (1 Clement 5:5-7)
- The Muratorian Fragment (c. 170-200 CE): Refers to "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] when he journeyed to Spain"
- Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170 CE): States Peter and Paul were martyred in Italy around the same time
- Tertullian (c. 200 CE): "Paul is beheaded... at Rome" (De Praescriptione Haereticorum 36)
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Cites tradition that Paul was beheaded under Nero
- Acts of Paul (c. 160-180 CE) contains legendary elements about his martyrdom
- The biblical book of Acts ends with Paul under house arrest in Rome but doesn't mention his death
James (son of Zebedee)
Died c. 44 CE
Strong EvidenceJames was one of Jesus' inner circle along with Peter and John. His martyrdom is the only apostolic death recorded in the New Testament.
- Acts 12:1-2 (c. 80-90 CE): "King Herod [Agrippa I] laid violent hands upon some who belonged to the church. He had James, the brother of John, killed with the sword."
- Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Eusebius, c. 325 CE): The executioner was so moved by James' testimony that he converted and was beheaded alongside him
- Josephus' Antiquities (c. 93-94 CE): References Herod Agrippa's persecution of the church, though doesn't name James specifically
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Reaffirms the biblical account
- Later accounts (post-4th century) add legendary details about James preaching in Spain
- Clement's account of the executioner's conversion may be embellishment
- Josephus doesn't specifically mention James' execution
James (brother of Jesus)
Died c. 62 CE
Strong EvidenceThough not one of the Twelve, James became leader of the Jerusalem church and is considered an apostle in early Christian tradition. His martyrdom has strong attestation from Jewish historian Josephus.
- Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.1 (c. 93-94 CE): "Ananus... assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others... and delivered them to be stoned."
- Hegesippus (quoted in Eusebius, c. 325 CE): Provides a detailed account of James being thrown from the temple pinnacle, then stoned and beaten to death
- Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Eusebius): Refers to James as "the Just" and describes his death
- 2nd century Nag Hammadi texts mention James' leadership role
- Some scholars question the authenticity of the "who was called Christ" passage in Josephus
- Hegesippus' account (being thrown from the temple pinnacle) conflicts with Josephus' account of stoning
- The timing of events in relation to Roman governors differs between accounts
Thomas
Died c. 72 CE
Moderate EvidenceThomas is known for his doubts about Jesus' resurrection in John's Gospel. Strong traditions associate him with missionary work in India, though evidence for his martyrdom is not contemporary.
- Acts of Thomas (c. 200-225 CE): Details Thomas' mission to India and martyrdom
- Doctrine of the Apostles (c. 250 CE): "India and all its countries... received the Apostle's hand of priesthood from Judas Thomas"
- Ephrem the Syrian (c. 363 CE): References Thomas' mission to India
- Gregory of Tours (c. 590 CE): "Thomas the Apostle, according to the history of his passion, is declared to have suffered in India"
- Continuing presence of Saint Thomas Christians in India since early centuries
- No 1st-century sources mention Thomas' fate
- Acts of Thomas contains many legendary elements
- Alternative traditions place his death in Syria or Parthia
- Archaeological evidence for early Christian presence in India exists but can't be specifically linked to Thomas himself
- No contemporary Indian sources mention Thomas' arrival or martyrdom
Andrew
Died c. 60-70 CE
Moderate EvidenceAndrew was Peter's brother and one of the first disciples called by Jesus. Traditions about his missionary work in Greece and his crucifixion emerge in the 2nd-4th centuries.
- Acts of Andrew (c. 150-200 CE): Describes Andrew's ministry and martyrdom in Achaia (Greece)
- Muratorian Fragment (c. 170-200 CE): May contain an indirect reference to Andrew's martyrdom
- Hippolytus of Rome (c. 235 CE): "Andrew preached to the Scythians and Thracians... was crucified, suspended on an olive tree, at Patrae, a town of Achaia"
- Gregory of Tours (c. 590 CE): Provides detailed account of Andrew's crucifixion
- Early veneration of Andrew in Byzantine tradition
- No 1st-century sources mention Andrew's fate
- Acts of Andrew is considered largely legendary
- The X-shaped cross tradition ("St. Andrew's Cross") emerges much later, around the 14th century
- No contemporary Roman or Greek sources mention his execution
- Multiple conflicting traditions exist about Andrew's missionary territories
Philip
Died c. 80 CE
Moderate EvidencePhilip appears several times in John's Gospel. Archaeological evidence suggests an early veneration of Philip in Hierapolis, though accounts of his death vary between martyrdom and peaceful death.
- Polycrates of Ephesus (c. 190 CE, quoted by Eusebius): "Philip, one of the twelve apostles, who sleeps in Hierapolis"
- Acts of Philip (c. 350-400 CE): Details Philip's ministry and martyrdom by crucifixion
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Mentions Philip and his daughters in Hierapolis
- Archaeological evidence: The Martyrium of Philip discovered in Hierapolis, dating to the 5th century
- Clement of Alexandria: References Philip's daughters
- No 1st-century sources mention Philip's fate
- Confusion between Philip the Apostle and Philip the Evangelist (Acts 6:5, 8:5-40) in some sources
- Polycrates says Philip "sleeps" in Hierapolis, which may suggest a peaceful death
- Acts of Philip contains many legendary elements
- The Martyrium dates centuries after Philip's death
Bartholomew
Died c. 70-80 CE
Weak EvidenceBartholomew is barely mentioned in the New Testament. Various traditions associate him with missionary work in Armenia, India, and Mesopotamia, with conflicting accounts of his martyrdom.
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Bartholomew preaching in India
- Jerome (c. 392 CE): Bartholomew preaching in India
- Martyrdom of Bartholomew (c. 300-400 CE): Martyred in Armenia
- No sources mention Bartholomew's fate until 4th century
- Confusion between India proper and "India" as a term sometimes used for regions including Ethiopia, Arabia, or Parthia
- Martyrdom accounts contain legendary elements typical of hagiography (casting out demons, conversion of King Polymius, immense suffering)
Matthew
Died c. 60-70 CE
Weak EvidenceMatthew, the former tax collector, is traditionally associated with writing the first Gospel. Various conflicting traditions exist about his later missionary work and death.
- Acts of Matthew (4th-5th century): Describes martyrdom in legendary fashion
- Foxe's Book of Martyrs (16th century, based on earlier traditions): Claims he was killed with a halberd in Ethiopia
- Ethiopian tradition venerating Matthew dates to at least the 4th century
- No sources mention Matthew's fate until 4th century
- Alternative traditions suggest he died peacefully in Parthia or Ethiopia
- Hippolytus (c. 235 CE) states Matthew died naturally
- Acts of Matthew is a late, legendary text
Simon the Zealot
Died c. 65-107 CE
Weak EvidenceSimon the Zealot is only mentioned in the apostle lists in the New Testament. Multiple contradictory traditions exist about his missionary activities and death.
- Passion of Simon and Jude (6th-7th century): Describes Simon and Jude being killed in Persia
- Ethiopic tradition (c. 5th century): States Simon was crucified
- Moses of Chorene (5th century): Refers to Simon's martyrdom in the kingdom of Iberia
- Byzantine tradition associates Simon with missionary work in North Africa
- British traditions (developed by 13th century) claim he preached in Britain
- No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Simon's fate
- Major contradictions between traditions (Britain vs. Persia vs. Egypt)
- The claim he was sawn in half appears to be confusion with Isaiah's traditional martyrdom
- British traditions appear politically motivated to establish apostolic connections
- All accounts of his martyrdom date centuries after his death
Thaddeus (Jude)
Died c. 65-80 CE
Weak EvidenceThaddeus/Jude is barely mentioned in the gospels. Various traditions link him with missionary work alongside Simon the Zealot in Persia and Armenia.
- Passion of Simon and Jude (6th-7th century): Describes their martyrdom in Persia
- Armenian tradition (dating to 4th-5th centuries): Claims Thaddeus evangelized in Armenia
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Mentions "Thaddeus" (though may be referring to another disciple) preaching to King Abgar of Edessa
- Veneration of Jude in Eastern and Western churches from early periods
- Some early martyrologies list his martyrdom
- No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Thaddeus/Jude's fate
- Confusion between Thaddeus of the Twelve and Thaddeus of the Seventy
- Different traditions describe different methods of execution
- Accounts of his martyrdom all date centuries after his death
- Uncertainty about whether Thaddeus and Jude are the same person
John
Died c. 98-100 CE
Moderate EvidenceJohn was part of Jesus' inner circle and traditionally associated with the Fourth Gospel and Revelation. Unlike most apostles, early traditions consistently state he died naturally at an advanced age.
- Irenaeus (c. 180 CE): "John, the disciple of the Lord, who leaned on his breast, published his Gospel while living at Ephesus in Asia" and lived "till the times of Trajan" (98-117 CE)
- Polycrates of Ephesus (c. 190 CE): Mentions John as "he who leaned on the Lord's breast" and was "a priest wearing the [high priest's] breastplate" who "fell asleep at Ephesus"
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Preserves multiple traditions about John's old age in Ephesus
- Archaeological evidence: The Basilica of St. John built over a tomb venerated as John's in Ephesus from the 4th century
- John 21:20-23: Early tradition that John would not die violently - "The rumor spread that this disciple would not die"
- No 1st-century sources explicitly confirm John's peaceful death
- Alternative traditions suggest John was martyred:
- Mark 10:39: Jesus tells James and John they will "drink the cup" he drinks (often interpreted as martyrdom)
- George Hamartolos (9th century): Claims Papias stated John was "killed by the Jews"
- Scholarly debate about whether the Beloved Disciple and John son of Zebedee are the same person
Matthias
Died c. 70-80 CE
Weak EvidenceMatthias was chosen to replace Judas Iscariot in Acts 1. Beyond this, almost nothing is known about him from early sources, with contradictory later traditions about his fate.
- Clement of Alexandria (c. 200 CE): Mentions Matthias teaching that "we should fight against the flesh, and abuse it"
- Acts of Andrew and Matthias (4th-5th century): Places Matthias in "the city of the cannibals" (often identified as Colchis/Ethiopia)
- Nicephorus (c. 810 CE): States Matthias preached in Judea and was crucified
- Greek tradition: Claims Matthias was stoned and then beheaded by Jews in Jerusalem
- Georgian tradition: Associates Matthias with missionary work in modern Georgia
- No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Matthias' fate beyond Clement's brief reference
- Acts of Andrew and Matthias is largely legendary
- Major contradictions between traditions about location and method of death
- Confusion with Matthew in some sources
- All specific martyrdom accounts date centuries after his death
Judas Iscariot
Died c. 30-33 CE
Strong EvidenceJudas Iscariot betrayed Jesus and died shortly after. His death is one of the few apostolic deaths mentioned in the New Testament, though with contradictory accounts.
- Matthew 27:3-5 (c. 80-90 CE): "Judas... brought back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests... Then he went and hanged himself"
- Acts 1:18-19 (c. 80-90 CE): "Falling headlong, he burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out"
- Papias (c. 110-120 CE, quoted in later sources): Describes Judas swelling up and dying in a gruesome accident
- Multiple independent traditions confirm Judas died shortly after betraying Jesus
- Early Christian art depicts Judas' death
- Matthew and Acts provide contradictory accounts of his death
- No contemporary Roman or Jewish sources mention Judas' fate
- Gospel of Judas (c. 150-200 CE, Gnostic text) presents alternative view of Judas
- Varying accounts about what happened to the betrayal money
- Debate about the historical meaning of "field of blood"
Conclusion
The evidence for the apostles' martyrdoms varies significantly in quality and reliability:
- Strong Evidence: Peter, Paul, James (son of Zebedee), and James (brother of Jesus) have relatively early and consistent attestation for their martyrdoms. Judas Iscariot's death (though not martyrdom) is also well-attested.
- Moderate Evidence: John's peaceful death in old age, Thomas's martyrdom in India, Andrew's crucifixion in Patras, and Philip's association with Hierapolis have some plausible early attestation but with less certainty.
- Weak Evidence: The martyrdoms of Bartholomew, Matthew, Simon the Zealot, Thaddeus/Jude, and Matthias rely on late sources with significant contradictions and legendary elements.
This assessment challenges the popular apologetic argument that all the apostles died as martyrs, proving they truly believed in the resurrection. While some apostles certainly were martyred, the historical evidence is insufficient to make this claim about all or even most of the Twelve. As historian Candida Moss notes in "The Myth of Persecution," "The idea that all the disciples were martyred is a later tradition aimed at proving the truth of Christianity rather than a historical fact supported by early evidence."
Bonus: Hippolytus, On the Twelve Apostles
This text, attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, is often cited in discussions of apostolic martyrdoms. However, scholars consider it problematic for several reasons:
- Timing: Written 100–150 years after the apostles' deaths (or 200+ if later attributed), this text relies on traditions far removed from the events, making distortions likely compared to earlier 1st–2nd century sources like Acts or Clement of Rome.
- Contradictions: It contains historical and geographical mistakes—like questionable locations or details of martyrdoms—clashing with more reliable early records from writers like Irenaeus, suggesting embellishment over accuracy.
- Authorship: Possibly pseudepigraphical (not by Hippolytus) and filled with hagiographic flourishes—miracles or dramatic tales typical of later saint stories—it lacks the credibility of a firsthand account.
- Manuscripts: No manuscripts from Hippolytus' time (c. 170–235 CE) survive for this text; existing copies, often medieval, raise doubts about authenticity and suggest later alterations or attributions.