Overview
Virtue ethics is one of the three major approaches to normative ethics, alongside deontology and consequentialism. Rather than focusing on actions or outcomes, virtue ethics asks: "What kind of person should I be?"
Core Questions
• What traits make someone a good person?
• How do we develop moral character?
• What does it mean to flourish as a human being?
• How do virtues guide action in particular situations?
Key Features
- Character focus: Emphasizes being rather than doing
- Holistic approach: Considers whole persons, not isolated acts
- Practical wisdom: Stresses judgment in particular contexts
- Human flourishing: Aims at eudaimonia or well-being
Historical Roots
Virtue ethics has ancient origins in Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle's work, but experienced a renaissance in 20th-century moral philosophy as scholars sought alternatives to dominant approaches.
Aristotelian Foundations
Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" provides the classical foundation for virtue ethics, developing concepts that continue to influence contemporary virtue theory.
Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing)
Eudaimonia is the highest human good—not a feeling of happiness but a way of living well. It involves actualizing human potentials and living according to virtue over a complete life.
The Function Argument
- Every thing has a function (ergon) that defines its good
- Human function is rational activity guided by virtue
- Excellence in function constitutes flourishing
- Virtue enables us to perform our function well
The Doctrine of the Mean
Most moral virtues are means between extremes of excess and deficiency. Courage, for example, is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess).
Types of Virtue
- Intellectual virtues: Excellence in thinking and reasoning
- Moral virtues: Excellence in character and emotion
- Practical wisdom (phronesis): Bridge between intellectual and moral
- Acquisition: Intellectual through teaching, moral through habituation
Practical Wisdom
Phronesis (practical wisdom) is crucial in Aristotelian ethics. It's the ability to deliberate well about human action, knowing what to do in particular circumstances to achieve human flourishing.
The Virtues
Virtues are stable dispositions to act, feel, and think in ways that promote human flourishing. Different traditions emphasize different sets of virtues.
Classical Cardinal Virtues
- Prudence (Wisdom): Good judgment and practical reasoning
- Justice: Giving each their due, fairness
- Fortitude (Courage): Bravery in face of danger or difficulty
- Temperance: Self-control and moderation
Aristotelian Virtues
• Courage: Mean between cowardice and recklessness
• Generosity: Mean between stinginess and wasteful spending
• Pride: Mean between vanity and undue humility
• Friendliness: Mean between quarrelsomeness and flattery
Christian Virtues
- Faith: Trust in divine revelation and promises
- Hope: Confident expectation of divine goodness
- Charity (Love): Self-sacrificial concern for others
- Humility: Proper recognition of one's place before God
Contemporary Virtue Lists
Cultural Variation
Different cultures and philosophers propose different virtue lists. Some focus on individual excellence, others on social cooperation, and still others on spiritual development. This raises questions about moral relativism.
Character Development
Virtue ethics emphasizes that moral character develops over time through practice, habituation, and the cultivation of good dispositions.
Habituation and Practice
"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit." Virtues are acquired through repeated practice of virtuous actions until they become second nature.
Stages of Moral Development
- External motivation: Acting virtuously for rewards/punishment
- Social conformity: Acting virtuously to fit in or be approved
- Internal integration: Virtuous action flows from character
- Practical wisdom: Skilled application of virtue to circumstances
Role Models and Exemplars
- Learning virtue through imitation of exemplary persons
- Moral imagination developed through stories and literature
- Communities of practice foster virtue development
- Mentorship and moral education
The Unity of the Virtues
Controversial Thesis
Some virtue ethicists argue that the virtues form a unity—one cannot possess one virtue fully without possessing them all. This controversial thesis suggests that partial virtue is not true virtue.
Modern Revival
After centuries of relative neglect, virtue ethics experienced a renaissance in the late 20th century, led by philosophers seeking alternatives to dominant moral theories.
Elizabeth Anscombe's Critique
Anscombe argued that modern moral philosophy's focus on obligation and duty was misguided without a divine lawgiver, and recommended returning to virtue-based approaches.
Alasdair MacIntyre's Project
- Criticized modern moral discourse as fragmented
- Argued for narrative understanding of human life
- Emphasized virtue traditions and practices
- Connected virtue to social roles and communities
Philippa Foot and Natural Goodness
- Grounded virtue in human nature and needs
- Argued for objective standards of human flourishing
- Connected virtue ethics to biological facts
- Influenced neo-Aristotelian naturalism
Contemporary Developments
Diverse Approaches
Modern virtue ethics includes diverse approaches: Aristotelian naturalism, care ethics, feminist virtue ethics, environmental virtue ethics, and virtue epistemology. Each develops virtue concepts in new directions.
Applications
Virtue ethics has been applied to numerous practical domains, offering distinctive perspectives on moral issues.
Professional Ethics
- Medical ethics: Virtues of compassion, integrity, competence
- Business ethics: Virtues of honesty, fairness, loyalty
- Legal ethics: Virtues of justice, prudence, integrity
- Teaching: Virtues of patience, wisdom, care
Environmental Ethics
Environmental virtue ethics focuses on character traits that promote proper relationship with nature: humility, respect, temperance, and care for future generations.
Bioethics
- Character of healthcare providers
- Virtue-based approach to end-of-life care
- Research ethics and scientific integrity
- Public health virtues
Political Ethics
- Civic virtues necessary for democratic participation
- Leadership virtues for public officials
- Virtues of citizenship and social cooperation
- Community building and social trust
Education and Character
Virtue ethics has significantly influenced character education movements, emphasizing the development of good character traits in students rather than just rule-following or consequence calculation.
Criticisms and Challenges
Virtue ethics faces several philosophical and practical criticisms that challenge its adequacy as a moral theory.
Action Guidance Problem
Critics argue that virtue ethics doesn't provide clear guidance for action. Telling someone to "act courageously" doesn't specify what to do in particular situations.
Cultural Relativism Concern
- Different cultures emphasize different virtues
- No objective way to adjudicate between virtue systems
- Risk of moral relativism
- Challenge to universal human rights
Self-Centeredness Objection
- Focus on personal character seems selfish
- Neglects social justice and structural problems
- Individual virtue insufficient for social change
- May support status quo inequalities
Tragic Conflicts
Virtue Conflicts
Sometimes virtues conflict: honesty may require breaking a promise, justice may demand acting without compassion. Virtue ethics struggles to resolve such conflicts without additional principles.
Empirical Challenges
- Psychological research questions virtue consistency
- Situational factors strongly influence behavior
- Character traits may be less stable than assumed
- Challenge to fundamental virtue concepts
Assessment
Virtue ethics offers valuable insights into moral psychology and character development, though it faces significant challenges as a complete moral theory.
Strengths
- Holistic approach to moral life
- Emphasis on character development and moral education
- Recognition of moral psychology and emotion
- Practical wisdom and contextual judgment
- Integration of ethics with human flourishing
Contemporary Relevance
- Character education in schools
- Professional ethics and role morality
- Leadership development
- Personal development and self-improvement
Integration with Other Approaches
Complementary Perspectives
Many contemporary ethicists see virtue ethics as complementing rather than replacing deontological and consequentialist approaches. Each contributes important insights to our understanding of morality.
Whether or not virtue ethics provides a complete moral theory, its emphasis on character, practical wisdom, and human flourishing offers valuable perspectives on moral life that enrich our understanding of ethics.