Introduction

Biblical texts, archaeology, and comparative religion show that Yahweh (YHWH) and El were originally separate deities that merged during Israel's religious development. This merger explains textual inconsistencies in the Hebrew Bible and the formation of biblical monotheism.

El in Canaanite Religion

Ugaritic texts (13th-12th centuries BCE) document El as Canaan's supreme deity:

  • Divine council head: KTU 1.2 I 19-20: "El sits in his assembly... in the midst of the divine council"
  • Titles: "Father of Years" (Ab Shanima), "Bull El" (Tor El), "Creator of Created Things" (Banū Banīta)
  • 70 divine sons: KTU 1.4 VI 46 lists El's offspring
  • Physical description: Seated, bearded, crowned figure (relief from Ugarit, 13th century BCE)
  • Consort: Asherah, "Lady Asherah of the Sea" (Rabat Athirat Yammi)
  • Dwelling: "Source of the two rivers, midst of the pools of the double-deep" (KTU 1.4 IV 20-24)
  • Epithets: "Kind" (Luf), "Compassionate" (Rahman), "Holy One" (Qadosh)
"Mighty Baal is dead! The Prince, Lord of Earth, has perished!"
"Where is Mighty Baal? Where is the Prince, Lord of Earth?"
Then Kindly El the Compassionate replied: "I know that Mighty Baal is dead" — KTU 1.5 VI 8-11, c. 1200 BCE

Archaeological Evidence

Tell el-Qedah inscriptions (14th century BCE): "El, creator of the earth"
Karatepe inscription (8th century BCE): References to "El, creator of the earth"
Deir Alla inscription (8th century BCE): Mentions "El-gods" (ilhn) in Balaam text

Yahweh's Origins

Evidence points to Yahweh's southern/southeastern origin:

  • Biblical geography: Judges 5:4-5 (Song of Deborah, c. 1100 BCE): "When you went out from Seir, when you marched from Edom's field"
  • Habakkuk 3:3: "God came from Teman, Holy One from Mount Paran"
  • Deuteronomy 33:2: "YHWH came from Sinai, dawned from Seir, shone forth from Mount Paran"
  • Egyptian records: Soleb temple list (Amenhotep III, 1390-1352 BCE): "Yhw in the land of the Shasu-nomads"
  • Amarah-West inscription (Ramesses II, 1279-1213 BCE): "Yhw in the land of Shasu"
  • Storm/war deity characteristics: Exodus 19:16-18 (thunder, lightning, smoke), Psalm 18:7-15
  • Midianite connection: Exodus 3:1 (Moses' father-in-law Jethro, priest of Midian)
  • Metallurgy association: Kenites (metalworkers) in Judges 4:11, 1 Samuel 15:6

Timna Valley Discoveries

Egyptian mining inscriptions (12th century BCE): References to Yhw among Shasu groups
Copper serpent (Timna Site 200): Possible early Yahwistic symbol
Midianite pottery: Found in Israelite sites, supporting cultural exchange

"Blessed are you by Yahweh of Teman and by his asherah"
"Blessed are you by Yahweh of Samaria and by his asherah" — Kuntillet 'Ajrud inscriptions, c. 800 BCE

Textual Evidence of Merger

Direct Biblical Statements

Exodus 6:2-3

"God spoke to Moses: 'I am Yahweh. I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as El Shaddai, but by my name Yahweh I was not known to them.'"

Deuteronomy 32:8-9 (4QDeut, LXX)

"When Elyon divided the nations, when he separated humanity, he fixed boundaries for peoples according to the number of the sons of El. But Yahweh's portion was his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance."

Genesis 14:18-22

Abraham identifies "El Elyon, creator of heaven and earth" with "Yahweh, El Elyon"

Divine Council Passages

  • Psalm 82:1: "Elohim stands in the divine assembly; among the gods he judges"
  • Psalm 89:5-7: "Who in the skies compares to Yahweh? Who among the sons of gods is like Yahweh?"
  • 1 Kings 22:19-23: Yahweh presiding over heavenly court
  • Job 1:6, 2:1: "Sons of God" presenting themselves before Yahweh
  • Isaiah 6:8: "Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?"

El Titles Applied to Yahweh

El Title Applied to Yahweh Biblical References
El Shaddai God Almighty Genesis 17:1, 28:3, 35:11, 43:14, 48:3
El Elyon God Most High Genesis 14:18-22, Psalm 78:35, Daniel 4:2
El Olam Everlasting God Genesis 21:33, Isaiah 40:28, Romans 16:26
El Roi God Who Sees Genesis 16:13
El Bethel God of Bethel Genesis 31:13, 35:7
El Berith God of Covenant Judges 9:46

Numerical Patterns

70 nations: Genesis 10 lists 70 nations, matching El's 70 divine sons
70 elders: Exodus 24:1, Numbers 11:16 - Israel's council mirrors divine council
Deuteronomy 32:8: Nations divided according to "sons of El" (70 in tradition)

Archaeological Evidence

Inscriptions

  • Kuntillet 'Ajrud (c. 800 BCE): "Yahweh of Teman and his asherah," "Yahweh of Samaria and his asherah"
  • Khirbet el-Qom (c. 750 BCE): "Blessed be Uriyahu by Yahweh and by his asherah"
  • Arad ostraca (7th-6th centuries BCE): References to "House of Yahweh" alongside other deities
  • Lachish letters (c. 586 BCE): "As Yahweh your God lives" formulas
  • Yehud coins (4th century BCE): "YHD" inscriptions showing continued Yahweh worship

Iconography

  • Taanach cult stand (10th century BCE): Four-tiered stand with bull imagery, trees (asherah?)
  • Jerusalem cave burial (7th century BCE): "Yahweh and his asherah" inscription
  • Tel Dan stela (9th century BCE): "House of David" inscription mentioning rival deities
  • Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE): Personal names combining Yahweh with other divine elements

Temple Architecture

Solomon's Temple: Bronze pillars Jachin and Boaz echo Canaanite temple design
Bronze Sea: Cosmic ocean symbolism from El's dwelling place
Cherubim: Divine throne guardians from Canaanite iconography
Asherah poles: Mentioned 40+ times in biblical texts as temple fixtures

Chronological Development

Period Developments Specific Evidence
Late Bronze Age
(1550-1200 BCE)		 El worship dominant in Canaan; Yahweh emerging in south Ugaritic texts; Egyptian Shasu lists; Soleb/Amarah inscriptions
Iron Age I
(1200-1000 BCE)		 Yahweh enters Canaan; early syncretism Song of Deborah; Merneptah Stele (1207 BCE); Philistine arrival
United Monarchy
(1000-930 BCE)		 State sponsorship; temple construction Solomon's Temple; J source composition; royal psalms
Divided Kingdom
(930-586 BCE)		 Regional variations; prophetic critiques Kuntillet 'Ajrud; Khirbet el-Qom; Assyrian records; prophetic books
Neo-Babylonian
(586-539 BCE)		 Exile; theological reflection Deutero-Isaiah; Ezekiel's visions; Babylonian chronicles
Persian Period
(539-332 BCE)		 Return; monotheistic codification Ezra-Nehemiah; Priestly source; Temple rebuilding

Josiah's Reforms (622 BCE)

2 Kings 23 reforms:
• Removed Asherah from Temple (v. 6)
• Destroyed high places (v. 8)
• Eliminated horse/chariot solar cult (v. 11)
• Destroyed Topheth child sacrifice site (v. 10)
• Removed foreign altars from Temple courts (v. 12)

Comparative Evidence

Similar Mergers in Ancient Near East

  • Marduk-Ea merger (Babylon): Marduk absorbed Ea's wisdom attributes
  • Amun-Re synthesis (Egypt): Combined creator and solar deities
  • Assur's elevation (Assyria): National god absorbed Enlil's functions
  • Ahura Mazda (Persia): Supreme deity incorporating lesser divine functions

Shared Attributes: El vs. Yahweh

Attribute El (Ugaritic) Yahweh (Hebrew Bible)
Council Presidency KTU 1.2 I 19-20 Psalm 82:1, 1 Kings 22:19
Creator Title qānū 'arṣ (creator of earth) qōnēh šāmayim wā'āreṣ (Genesis 14:19)
Divine Fatherhood 'ab banū 'ilīma (father of divine sons) 'ābīnū (our father, Isaiah 63:16)
Mountain Dwelling Mount Ṣapan (Jebel al-Aqra) Mount Sinai, Mount Zion
Bull Symbolism tōru 'ilu (Bull El) Golden calf episodes (Exodus 32, 1 Kings 12)
Compassionate Nature laṭīf (kind), raḥmān (compassionate) raḥūm wĕḥannūn (merciful and gracious, Exodus 34:6)

Linguistic Evidence

Divine Name Patterns

  • Theophoric names: Pre-exilic names use both El- and Yahweh- prefixes
  • El-prefix names: Elijah, Elisha, Elimelech, Elnathan (106 biblical examples)
  • Yahweh-prefix names: Jehoshaphat, Jehoiakim, Jeremiah (153 biblical examples)
  • Interchangeable usage: Elijah = "My God is Yahweh" (1 Kings 18:39)

Grammatical Anomalies

  • Plural Elohim: 2,570 biblical occurrences with singular verbs when referring to Yahweh
  • Divine plural: "Let us make humanity" (Genesis 1:26), "Who will go for us?" (Isaiah 6:8)
  • Compound names: "Yahweh Elohim" appears 20 times in Genesis 2-3
  • El = God formula: 238 biblical verses equate El with Yahweh

Dead Sea Scrolls Evidence

4QDeut (Deuteronomy 32:8-9): Preserves "sons of El" reading
1QIsa (Isaiah manuscript): Shows textual variants in divine titles
4QSama (Samuel manuscript): Contains pre-Masoretic divine name traditions
11QPsa (Psalms scroll): Includes additional hymns to El Most High

Implications

The El-Yahweh merger demonstrates:

  • Historical process: Monotheism developed gradually over 600+ years (1200-600 BCE)
  • Cultural synthesis: Israelite religion incorporated Canaanite elements while maintaining distinct identity
  • Textual layering: Biblical texts preserve multiple stages of religious development
  • Archaeological correlation: Material culture confirms textual evidence of religious evolution
  • Comparative context: Similar deity mergers occurred throughout ancient Near East

Statistical Analysis

Biblical references to El: 238 occurrences
YHWH occurrences: 6,828 times
Elohim for Yahweh: 2,570 instances
Divine council passages: 27 biblical texts
Archaeological sites with Yahweh-Asherah: 12 confirmed locations