Introduction
Evidence from biblical texts, archaeology, and comparative religion suggests that Yahweh (YHWH), the God of Israel, and El, the chief deity of the Canaanite pantheon, were originally separate deities that gradually merged as Israelite religion evolved toward monotheism. This merger represents one of the most significant developments in the formation of biblical monotheism and helps explain many textual inconsistencies in the Hebrew Bible.
El in Canaanite Religion
El was the supreme deity in ancient Canaanite religion, as documented in texts from Ugarit (13th-12th centuries BCE):
- Chief of the divine council/assembly Ugaritic text KTU 1.2 I 19-20: "El sits in his assembly... in the midst of the divine council." Similar language appears in Psalm 82:1.
- Called "Father of Years" (Ab Shanima) and "Bull El" (Tor El) The bull imagery symbolized El's strength and fertility, appearing in KTU 1.3 V 35-36 and other Ugaritic texts.
- Creator deity and father of other gods, including 70 divine sons This concept parallels Deuteronomy 32:8-9 where "sons of El" or "sons of God" are mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls version.
- Associated with mountains, wisdom, and justice
- Depicted as an elderly, bearded figure seated on a throne Archaeological finds from Ugarit show El as a seated, bearded deity with a crown, similar to later depictions of YHWH in Second Temple period art.
- Married to the goddess Asherah, who bore his divine children
El's Dwelling Place
El was believed to dwell at "the source of the two rivers, in the midst of the pools of the double-deep" KTU 1.4 IV 20-24. This cosmic mountain imagery parallels biblical descriptions of Eden with its four rivers (Genesis 2:10-14).
Yahweh's Origins
Evidence suggests Yahweh originated outside Canaan, likely in southern regions:
- Biblical texts associate Yahweh with southern regions Judges 5:4-5: "When you, Lord, went out from Seir, when you marched from the land of Edom, the earth shook, the heavens poured..." This archaic poem is considered one of the oldest biblical texts.
- Described as coming from Teman, Paran, and Sinai Habakkuk 3:3: "God came from Teman, the Holy One from Mount Paran." Deuteronomy 33:2 similarly describes YHWH coming from Sinai, Seir, and Mount Paran.
- Associated with storms, warfare, and volcanic imagery, unlike El Exodus 19:16-18 describes YHWH's appearance at Sinai with thunder, lightning, thick cloud, and smoke "like that of a furnace" - volcanic imagery consistent with the Midian region.
- Name appears in Egyptian texts as "Yhw" in the land of Shasu (nomads) Egyptian inscriptions from the temples of Amenhotep III (14th century BCE) and Ramesses II (13th century BCE) at Soleb and Amarah-West mention "Yhw in the land of the Shasu" alongside other geographic locations.
- Possibly connected to Midianite/Kenite metalworkers Moses' father-in-law Jethro was a Midianite priest (Exodus 3:1), and the Kenites are associated with metalworking (Genesis 4:22). Archaeological evidence shows copper mining in the Timna Valley during this period.
Archaeological Evidence
Inscriptions from Kuntillet 'Ajrud (8th century BCE) refer to "Yahweh of Teman" and "Yahweh of Samaria," suggesting regional forms of Yahweh worship. They also mention "Yahweh and his Asherah," indicating a divine pairing similar to El and Asherah in Canaanite religion. The inscriptions include blessings "by Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah" and "by Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah," suggesting Yahweh was worshipped with a female consort in the 8th century BCE.
Evidence of Merger
Biblical Passages
Exodus 6:2-3
"God [Elohim] spoke to Moses and said to him, 'I am Yahweh. I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as El Shaddai [God Almighty], but by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them.'" This passage explicitly acknowledges that the patriarchs knew God as El Shaddai, while the name Yahweh was revealed later, suggesting a historical merger of two deity concepts.
Deuteronomy 32:8-9 (Dead Sea Scrolls version)
"When the Most High [Elyon] gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided all mankind, he set up boundaries for the peoples according to the number of the sons of El [or sons of God]. For Yahweh's portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance." The Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint preserve "sons of El" or "sons of God" rather than "sons of Israel" in the Masoretic Text. This passage suggests Yahweh was originally one of El's sons who received Israel as his inheritance.
Psalm 82:1
"God [Elohim] stands in the divine assembly; in the midst of the gods he holds judgment." This psalm depicts Yahweh (as Elohim) presiding over the divine council, a role originally attributed to El in Canaanite religion. The psalm continues with Yahweh judging the other gods.
Genesis 49:25
"By the God of your father who will help you, by El Shaddai who will bless you with blessings of heaven above, blessings of the deep that lies beneath, blessings of the breasts and of the womb." This blessing combines El imagery (El Shaddai) with fertility blessings typical of El worship in Canaanite religion.
El's Attributes Absorbed by Yahweh
| El's Attributes | Absorbed into Yahweh | Biblical References |
|---|---|---|
| Council President | Yahweh presides over divine assembly | Psalm 82:1, 1 Kings 22:19-23, Job 1:6 |
| Creator | Yahweh becomes creator | Genesis 2:4-25, Isaiah 45:18 |
| Mountain Dwelling | Yahweh dwells on mountains | Exodus 19 (Sinai), Psalm 48:1-2 (Zion) |
| Divine Father | Yahweh as father of Israel | Isaiah 63:16, Deuteronomy 32:6 |
| Elderly, Wise Judge | Yahweh as ancient, white-haired judge | Daniel 7:9-10, Psalm 29:10 |
| Compassionate, Kind | Yahweh as merciful | Exodus 34:6, Psalm 103:8 |
| Bull Imagery | Bull symbolism in early Yahwism | Exodus 32, 1 Kings 12:28-29 |
El's Titles Applied to Yahweh
- El Shaddai (God Almighty) - Genesis 17:1, 28:3, 35:11
- El Elyon (God Most High) - Psalm 78:35, Genesis 14:18-22
- El Olam (Everlasting God) - Genesis 21:33, Isaiah 40:28
- El Roi (God Who Sees) - Genesis 16:13
- El Bethel (God of Bethel) - Genesis 31:13, 35:7
Linguistic Evidence
The Hebrew Bible frequently uses the plural form "Elohim" for God, which grammatically takes singular verbs when referring to Yahweh. This linguistic anomaly may reflect the absorption of multiple deities into one. The term "Elohim" is grammatically plural but treated as singular when referring to Yahweh, possibly preserving a trace of earlier polytheistic concepts within monotheistic language.
Historical Development
| Period | Development | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Pre-Monarchic (13th-11th c. BCE) |
Yahweh introduced to Canaan and associated with El | Archaic biblical poetry (Exodus 15, Judges 5); Egyptian references to "Yhw" |
| Early Monarchy (10th c. BCE) |
Yahweh elevated as state deity, begins absorbing El's attributes | Solomon's temple construction; J source texts; Yahweh-El syncretism |
| Divided Kingdom (9th-8th c. BCE) |
Regional differences in worship; polytheistic elements persist | Kuntillet 'Ajrud inscriptions; prophetic critiques of Baal worship |
| Late Monarchy (7th c. BCE) |
Deuteronomic reforms; centralization of worship | Josiah's reforms (2 Kings 22-23); Deuteronomistic history |
| Exilic Period (6th c. BCE) |
Monotheistic theology develops fully | Deutero-Isaiah (Isaiah 40-55); explicit monotheistic statements |
| Post-Exilic (5th-4th c. BCE) |
Complete identification of Yahweh with El; strict monotheism | Priestly source; Chronicles; elimination of divine council |
Josiah's Reforms
King Josiah's religious reforms (c. 622 BCE) represent a critical moment in the El-Yahweh merger, centralizing worship in Jerusalem and eliminating competing cult sites. 2 Kings 23 describes Josiah removing Asherah poles, destroying high places, and eliminating priests who "burned incense to Baal, to the sun and moon, to the constellations and to all the starry hosts."
Monotheistic Declarations
Explicit monotheistic statements appear primarily in exilic and post-exilic texts, suggesting the final stage of the merger: Isaiah 43:10-11: "Before me no god was formed, nor will there be one after me. I, even I, am the LORD, and apart from me there is no savior." This text from Deutero-Isaiah represents the culmination of monotheistic theology.
Scholarly Perspectives
Mark S. Smith
"The early Israelite cult shows evidence of the worship of El, Asherah, and Baal in addition to Yahweh... The evidence suggests that Israelite religion began with the worship of El, perhaps along with Asherah, to which was added the worship of Yahweh." From "The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel" (2002), p. 27.
Frank Moore Cross
"The identification of Yahweh and El appears to have taken place prior to the emergence of Israel as a league of tribes in Canaan... The evidence suggests that Yahweh was known and worshipped in Midian as a patron deity of the Midianite league before Moses." From "Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic" (1973), pp. 60-71.
William Dever
"Archaeological evidence from ancient Israel reveals that the majority of Israelites in the monarchic period practiced a form of religion that differed significantly from the monotheistic Yahwism promoted by biblical writers." From "Did God Have a Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel" (2005), p. 5.
Theological Implications
The merger of El and Yahweh has several theological implications:
- Explains the different divine personalities in the Hebrew Bible The compassionate, distant creator (El characteristics) versus the warrior storm deity (Yahweh characteristics) represent different theological traditions that were merged.
- Illuminates the development of monotheism as a historical process rather than a sudden revelation
- Helps explain the persistence of polytheistic elements in biblical texts
- Provides context for understanding ancient Israelite religious practices condemned by biblical authors
- Demonstrates how religious concepts evolve through cultural interaction and synthesis
Conclusion
The evidence strongly suggests that Yahweh and El were originally distinct deities who were gradually merged as Israelite religion evolved toward monotheism. This merger included adopting El's titles, attributes, and position as divine council head, while gradually eliminating polytheistic elements.
Understanding this historical development provides important context for the origins of monotheism and the complex religious heritage that underlies the Hebrew Bible. Rather than undermining the significance of biblical monotheism, this history enriches our understanding of how this revolutionary religious concept emerged and developed in the ancient Near East.