Introduction

Thirteen New Testament letters claim Pauline authorship. Modern scholarship divides them into three categories based on linguistic analysis, theological development, and historical evidence:

Romans

~57 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
7,111
Hapax Legomena
113 (1.6%)
Secretary
Tertius (16:22)
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Clement of Rome quotes Romans 1:29-32 (95 CE)
  • Justin Martyr references Romans 13:3-4 (150 CE)
  • Contains 27 people Paul greets by name (16:3-16)
  • Mentions Paul's Spanish mission plans (15:24, 28)
  • Collection for Jerusalem saints matches 1 Cor 16:1-4
  • Theological vocabulary matches other undisputed letters
  • P46 papyrus (200 CE) places Romans 16 after chapter 14
  • Marcion's canon includes Romans (140 CE)
  • Tertius named as scribe - unusual detail for forgery
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Chester Beatty papyrus P46 lacks 16:25-27 doxology
  • Some manuscripts place doxology after 14:23 or 15:33
  • Romans 16 may be separate Ephesian letter (names known there)
  • Virtually no serious scholarly challenges to authenticity

1 Corinthians

~54 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
6,830
Hapax Legomena
93 (1.4%)
Co-author
Sosthenes (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Clement of Rome quotes 1 Cor 13:4-7 verbatim (95 CE)
  • Matches Acts 18:12-17 Sosthenes reference
  • Names Chloe's people as informants (1:11)
  • Mentions Apollos ministry matching Acts 18:24-19:1
  • Collection for Jerusalem matches Romans 15:25-26
  • Crispus and Gaius baptisms match Acts 18:8
  • Stephanas household details (1:16, 16:15-18)
  • P46 papyrus includes 1 Corinthians (200 CE)
  • Pre-Pauline creed in 15:3-8 suggests authenticity
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • 1 Cor 14:34-35 may be interpolation (Western manuscripts place after v.40)
  • 1 Cor 11:2-16 head covering passage possibly added later
  • Some scholars see composite of 2-3 letters
  • Fee, Barrett, and others defend literary unity

2 Corinthians

~55-56 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
4,477
Hapax Legomena
87 (1.9%)
Co-author
Timothy (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Arabia visit reference matches Galatians 1:17
  • Third heaven vision (12:2-4) - highly personal detail
  • Thorn in flesh (12:7) - unique Pauline reference
  • Titus mission details cross-reference with Galatians 2:1
  • Macedonia donation details (8:1-5, 9:2-4)
  • Catalog of sufferings (11:23-28) matches Acts accounts
  • Damascus escape in basket (11:32-33) matches Acts 9:25
  • False apostles polemic fits Paul's ministry context
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 interrupts flow - possible interpolation
  • Chapters 10-13 drastically different tone ("tearful letter")
  • Betz argues for 5 separate letter fragments
  • 2 Cor 8 and 9 both discuss collection - separate letters?
  • Furnish sees at least 2 letters combined

Galatians

~48-55 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
2,230
Hapax Legomena
35 (1.6%)
Manual Signature
6:11 "large letters"
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Marcion includes in his canon (140 CE)
  • 3-year Arabia sojourn (1:17) - specific chronology
  • 14-year gap before Jerusalem council (2:1)
  • Peter confrontation at Antioch (2:11-14) - embarrassing detail
  • Cephas/Peter name variants match other letters
  • James/John/Cephas as pillars (2:9) - Jerusalem leadership
  • Barnabas hypocrisy reference (2:13) matches Acts
  • Circumcision controversy fits historical context
  • Manual signature claim (6:11) - authentication detail
  • Agitation tone fits crisis situation
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • South vs North Galatia debate affects dating
  • Virtually no serious challenges to Pauline authorship
  • Burton, Lightfoot, Bruce defend authenticity

Philippians

~61-62 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
1,629
Hapax Legomena
41 (2.5%)
Co-author
Timothy (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Polycarp quotes Philippians 2:10 (110 CE)
  • Praetorian guard reference (1:13) fits Roman imprisonment
  • Caesar's household (4:22) - specific Roman detail
  • Epaphroditus illness and recovery (2:25-30)
  • Partnership since "first day of gospel" (1:5) - Lydia conversion
  • Euodia and Syntyche conflict (4:2-3) - specific names
  • Clement who worked with Paul (4:3)
  • Christ hymn (2:6-11) predates Paul - shows early tradition
  • Financial support acknowledgment (4:15-18)
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Possible compilation of 2-3 separate letters
  • 3:2-4:1 interrupts thank-you theme
  • Partition theories by Hawthorne, Fee disputed by others
  • No serious challenges to Pauline authorship

1 Thessalonians

~50 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
1,481
Hapax Legomena
22 (1.5%)
Co-authors
Silvanus, Timothy (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Ignatius alludes to 1 Thess 5:17 (110 CE)
  • Timothy's return from Thessalonica (3:6) matches Acts 18:5
  • Silvanus co-authorship matches Acts 15:22-18:5
  • Satan hindered travel (2:18) - personal frustration
  • Jewish persecution theme (2:14-16) fits historical context
  • Manual labor emphasis (4:11) matches Paul's practice
  • Imminent parousia expectation (4:15-17) - early Christian belief
  • Simplest theological language of Paul's letters
  • P30 papyrus fragment (250 CE) contains 1 Thess 4:12-5:18, 5:25-28
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Anti-Jewish polemic (2:14-16) questioned by some
  • Pearson argues against authenticity of 2:13-16
  • Majority of scholars defend authenticity

Philemon

~61-62 CE

Authentic
Greek Words
335
Hapax Legomena
8 (2.4%)
Recipient
Philemon, Apphia, Archippus
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Marcion includes in canon (140 CE) - earliest attestation
  • Jerome confirms in Vulgate (400 CE)
  • Names match Colossians: Epaphras (v.23/Col 1:7), Mark (v.24/Col 4:10)
  • Aristarchus, Demas, Luke mentioned (v.24) - matches Col 4:10-14
  • Archippus recipient (v.2) matches Col 4:17 reference
  • "Fellow prisoner" Epaphras (v.23) fits imprisonment setting
  • Onesimus pun on "useful/useless" (v.11) - wordplay typical of Paul
  • No theological motivation for forgery
  • Personal details too specific for fabrication
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • No significant scholarly challenges to authenticity
  • Universal scholarly acceptance as genuine Paul

2 Thessalonians

~51 CE or 80-90 CE

Disputed
Greek Words
823
Hapax Legomena
10 (1.2%)
Scholarly Division
~50% accept, 50% reject
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Polycarp quotes 2 Thess 3:15 (110 CE)
  • Justin Martyr references 2 Thess 2:3 (150 CE)
  • Same co-senders as 1 Thessalonians: Paul, Silvanus, Timothy
  • Greek style analysis by Trilling supports authenticity
  • Eschatological sequence fits Jewish apocalyptic literature
  • Personal signature reference (3:17) matches Paul's practice
  • Thanksgiving formula matches 1 Thessalonians structure
  • Wanamaker argues for authentic Pauline authorship (1990)
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Contradicts 1 Thess 5:2 ("like a thief") vs. 2 Thess 2:3-12 (signs first)
  • 10 unique words not found elsewhere in Paul
  • More formal structure than 1 Thessalonians (Hughes 1989)
  • "Man of lawlessness" concept absent from other letters
  • Emphasis on written vs. oral tradition (2:15, 3:14)
  • Warning against forged letters (2:2) suggests later problem
  • Trilling, Krodel, Marxsen argue against authenticity
  • Different attitude toward work (3:6-12) vs. 1 Thess 4:11-12

Colossians

~62 CE or 70-80 CE

Disputed
Greek Words
1,582
Hapax Legomena
34 (2.1%)
Scholarly Division
~60% reject, 40% accept
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Marcion includes in canon (140 CE)
  • Names match Philemon: Onesimus (4:9), Epaphras (4:12), Archippus (4:17)
  • Mark mentioned as Barnabas's cousin (4:10) - specific detail
  • Luke the physician reference (4:14) fits Paul's companions
  • Tychicus as letter bearer (4:7-8) matches Eph 6:21-22
  • O'Brien, Bruce, Carson defend Pauline authorship
  • Prison setting fits Paul's Roman imprisonment
  • Theological development fits Paul's ministry progression
  • Personal greetings (4:7-18) match Paul's practice
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Average sentence length: 21.6 words vs. 16.2 in undisputed letters
  • Col 1:15-20 Christ hymn uses non-Pauline vocabulary
  • "Fullness" (pleroma) used 2x vs. 0x in undisputed letters
  • "Body" metaphor differs from 1 Corinthians usage
  • Missing key Pauline terms: justification, salvation, law
  • Baptism as past event (2:12) vs. future hope in Romans 6
  • Household codes (3:18-4:1) more developed than earlier letters
  • Bujard's statistical analysis shows stylistic differences
  • Lohse, Schweizer, Gnilka argue against authenticity

Ephesians

~62 CE or 80-90 CE

Disputed
Greek Words
2,422
Unique Vocabulary
116 words (4.8%)
Scholarly Division
~80% reject, 20% accept
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Ignatius quotes Eph 5:25-29 (110 CE)
  • Polycarp references Eph 4:26 (110 CE)
  • P46 papyrus (200 CE) includes Ephesians
  • Marcion includes in canon (140 CE) as "Laodiceans"
  • Self-identification as Paul (1:1, 3:1, 4:1)
  • Prison references (3:1, 4:1, 6:20) fit Paul's situation
  • Theological themes consistent with developed Pauline thought
  • Lincoln, Arnold support Pauline authorship
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Eph 1:3-14 = single 200+ word sentence in Greek
  • 38 parallel passages with Colossians, many verbatim
  • P46, Vaticanus, Sinaiticus lack "in Ephesus" (1:1)
  • Impersonal tone despite Paul's 3-year Ephesian ministry
  • Church as universal institution vs. local communities
  • Apostles and prophets as foundation (2:20) suggests later period
  • Gentiles as recipients (2:11, 3:1) vs. established church
  • Mitton statistical analysis shows non-Pauline authorship
  • Goodspeed argues for post-Pauline composition (1933)
  • Absence of eschatological urgency vs. other letters

1 Timothy

~100-110 CE

Pseudonymous
Greek Words
1,591
Unique Vocabulary
306 words (19.2%)
Scholarly Consensus
~95% reject authenticity
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Clement of Alexandria quotes 1 Tim 6:20 (200 CE)
  • Irenaeus attributes to Paul (180 CE)
  • Muratorian Fragment includes Pastorals (200 CE)
  • Personal details: Alexander, Hymenaeus (1:20), Phygelus, Hermogenes
  • Timothy's grandmother Lois, mother Eunice (2 Tim 1:5)
  • References to Paul's persecution at Antioch, Iconium, Lystra
  • Johnson argues for secretary hypothesis
  • Towner defends modified authenticity view
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • "Godliness" (eusebeia) used 8x vs. 0x in undisputed letters
  • "Sound doctrine" (hygiaino) used 6x - ecclesiastical term
  • Bishop/overseer distinction (3:1-7) vs. Phil 1:1 equivalence
  • Deacon qualifications (3:8-13) show institutional development
  • Widow registration (5:3-16) indicates later church structure
  • Gnostic terminology: "antitheses of falsely called knowledge" (6:20)
  • No references in early 2nd century (missing from P46)
  • Harrison's statistical analysis (1921) demonstrates non-Pauline vocabulary
  • Historical situation doesn't fit Paul's known itinerary
  • Dibelius, Conzelmann, Quinn argue against authenticity

2 Timothy

~100-110 CE

Pseudonymous
Greek Words
1,238
Unique Vocabulary
232 words (18.7%)
Scholarly Consensus
~90% reject authenticity
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Most personal of Pastoral letters
  • Specific details: cloak at Troas (4:13), parchments, scrolls
  • Alexander the metalworker opposition (4:14-15)
  • Demas desertion, Luke's faithfulness (4:10-11)
  • Winter season, Eubulus, Pudens, Linus, Claudia greetings (4:21)
  • Onesiphorus family details (1:16-18, 4:19)
  • Authentic farewell discourse elements
  • Guthrie argues for genuine Pauline fragments
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Shares 175 words exclusively with other Pastorals
  • "Sound words" (2:2), "pattern of sound words" (1:13) - later terminology
  • "Deposit" (paratheke) concept (1:12, 14) suggests fixed tradition
  • Paul as prototypical martyr figure for later church
  • Persecution accounts (3:10-12) don't match Acts chronology
  • Final abandonment scenario contradicts Acts 28
  • Hymenaeus and Philetus teaching (2:17-18) fits later controversies
  • Statistical vocabulary analysis matches other Pastorals
  • Literary testament genre common in post-apostolic period

Titus

~100-110 CE

Pseudonymous
Greek Words
659
Unique Vocabulary
132 words (20.0%)
Scholarly Consensus
~95% reject authenticity
Evidence For Authenticity
  • Clement of Alexandria references Titus (200 CE)
  • Tertullian attributes to Paul (220 CE)
  • Titus known as Paul's associate from Galatians 2:1-3
  • Crete mission plausible during Paul's travels
  • Cretan character quote (1:12) from Epimenides - cultural knowledge
  • Zenas the lawyer, Apollos references (3:13) - specific names
  • Fee argues for authentic core with later development
Evidence Against Authenticity
  • Shares 54 words exclusively with other Pastorals
  • Elder/bishop terminology (1:5-7) shows developed hierarchy
  • "Godliness" (eusebeia) used 2x - Pastoral letters theme
  • Household codes (2:1-10) more elaborate than earlier letters
  • Crete mission unattested in Acts or other authentic letters
  • "Sound doctrine" emphasis (1:9, 2:1) indicates institutional period
  • Salvation as past event (3:5) vs. future hope in Romans
  • Absence of justification language vs. emphasis on good works
  • Dibelius-Conzelmann commentary standard against authenticity
  • Post-apostolic concerns with church order and respectability

Summary

Linguistic analysis, historical evidence, and theological development studies support a three-tier classification:

  • Undisputed (7 letters): Universal scholarly acceptance based on consistent vocabulary, style, and historical fit.
  • Disputed (3 letters): Mixed evidence with genuine scholarly debate about authenticity.
  • Pseudonymous (3 letters): Strong evidence against Pauline authorship, likely written 30-50 years after Paul's death.

These authorship determinations help reconstruct early Christian theological development and the evolution from Paul's charismatic leadership to institutional church structures.