Introduction
Thirteen New Testament letters claim Pauline authorship. Modern scholarship divides them into three categories based on linguistic analysis, theological development, and historical evidence:
Romans
~57 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
7,111
Hapax Legomena
113 (1.6%)
Secretary
Tertius (16:22)
Evidence For Authenticity
- Clement of Rome quotes Romans 1:29-32 (95 CE)
- Justin Martyr references Romans 13:3-4 (150 CE)
- Contains 27 people Paul greets by name (16:3-16)
- Mentions Paul's Spanish mission plans (15:24, 28)
- Collection for Jerusalem saints matches 1 Cor 16:1-4
- Theological vocabulary matches other undisputed letters
- P46 papyrus (200 CE) places Romans 16 after chapter 14
- Marcion's canon includes Romans (140 CE)
- Tertius named as scribe - unusual detail for forgery
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Chester Beatty papyrus P46 lacks 16:25-27 doxology
- Some manuscripts place doxology after 14:23 or 15:33
- Romans 16 may be separate Ephesian letter (names known there)
- Virtually no serious scholarly challenges to authenticity
1 Corinthians
~54 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
6,830
Hapax Legomena
93 (1.4%)
Co-author
Sosthenes (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
- Clement of Rome quotes 1 Cor 13:4-7 verbatim (95 CE)
- Matches Acts 18:12-17 Sosthenes reference
- Names Chloe's people as informants (1:11)
- Mentions Apollos ministry matching Acts 18:24-19:1
- Collection for Jerusalem matches Romans 15:25-26
- Crispus and Gaius baptisms match Acts 18:8
- Stephanas household details (1:16, 16:15-18)
- P46 papyrus includes 1 Corinthians (200 CE)
- Pre-Pauline creed in 15:3-8 suggests authenticity
Evidence Against Authenticity
- 1 Cor 14:34-35 may be interpolation (Western manuscripts place after v.40)
- 1 Cor 11:2-16 head covering passage possibly added later
- Some scholars see composite of 2-3 letters
- Fee, Barrett, and others defend literary unity
2 Corinthians
~55-56 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
4,477
Hapax Legomena
87 (1.9%)
Co-author
Timothy (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
- Arabia visit reference matches Galatians 1:17
- Third heaven vision (12:2-4) - highly personal detail
- Thorn in flesh (12:7) - unique Pauline reference
- Titus mission details cross-reference with Galatians 2:1
- Macedonia donation details (8:1-5, 9:2-4)
- Catalog of sufferings (11:23-28) matches Acts accounts
- Damascus escape in basket (11:32-33) matches Acts 9:25
- False apostles polemic fits Paul's ministry context
Evidence Against Authenticity
- 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 interrupts flow - possible interpolation
- Chapters 10-13 drastically different tone ("tearful letter")
- Betz argues for 5 separate letter fragments
- 2 Cor 8 and 9 both discuss collection - separate letters?
- Furnish sees at least 2 letters combined
Galatians
~48-55 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
2,230
Hapax Legomena
35 (1.6%)
Manual Signature
6:11 "large letters"
Evidence For Authenticity
- Marcion includes in his canon (140 CE)
- 3-year Arabia sojourn (1:17) - specific chronology
- 14-year gap before Jerusalem council (2:1)
- Peter confrontation at Antioch (2:11-14) - embarrassing detail
- Cephas/Peter name variants match other letters
- James/John/Cephas as pillars (2:9) - Jerusalem leadership
- Barnabas hypocrisy reference (2:13) matches Acts
- Circumcision controversy fits historical context
- Manual signature claim (6:11) - authentication detail
- Agitation tone fits crisis situation
Evidence Against Authenticity
- South vs North Galatia debate affects dating
- Virtually no serious challenges to Pauline authorship
- Burton, Lightfoot, Bruce defend authenticity
Philippians
~61-62 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
1,629
Hapax Legomena
41 (2.5%)
Co-author
Timothy (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
- Polycarp quotes Philippians 2:10 (110 CE)
- Praetorian guard reference (1:13) fits Roman imprisonment
- Caesar's household (4:22) - specific Roman detail
- Epaphroditus illness and recovery (2:25-30)
- Partnership since "first day of gospel" (1:5) - Lydia conversion
- Euodia and Syntyche conflict (4:2-3) - specific names
- Clement who worked with Paul (4:3)
- Christ hymn (2:6-11) predates Paul - shows early tradition
- Financial support acknowledgment (4:15-18)
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Possible compilation of 2-3 separate letters
- 3:2-4:1 interrupts thank-you theme
- Partition theories by Hawthorne, Fee disputed by others
- No serious challenges to Pauline authorship
1 Thessalonians
~50 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
1,481
Hapax Legomena
22 (1.5%)
Co-authors
Silvanus, Timothy (1:1)
Evidence For Authenticity
- Ignatius alludes to 1 Thess 5:17 (110 CE)
- Timothy's return from Thessalonica (3:6) matches Acts 18:5
- Silvanus co-authorship matches Acts 15:22-18:5
- Satan hindered travel (2:18) - personal frustration
- Jewish persecution theme (2:14-16) fits historical context
- Manual labor emphasis (4:11) matches Paul's practice
- Imminent parousia expectation (4:15-17) - early Christian belief
- Simplest theological language of Paul's letters
- P30 papyrus fragment (250 CE) contains 1 Thess 4:12-5:18, 5:25-28
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Anti-Jewish polemic (2:14-16) questioned by some
- Pearson argues against authenticity of 2:13-16
- Majority of scholars defend authenticity
Philemon
~61-62 CE
AuthenticGreek Words
335
Hapax Legomena
8 (2.4%)
Recipient
Philemon, Apphia, Archippus
Evidence For Authenticity
- Marcion includes in canon (140 CE) - earliest attestation
- Jerome confirms in Vulgate (400 CE)
- Names match Colossians: Epaphras (v.23/Col 1:7), Mark (v.24/Col 4:10)
- Aristarchus, Demas, Luke mentioned (v.24) - matches Col 4:10-14
- Archippus recipient (v.2) matches Col 4:17 reference
- "Fellow prisoner" Epaphras (v.23) fits imprisonment setting
- Onesimus pun on "useful/useless" (v.11) - wordplay typical of Paul
- No theological motivation for forgery
- Personal details too specific for fabrication
Evidence Against Authenticity
- No significant scholarly challenges to authenticity
- Universal scholarly acceptance as genuine Paul
2 Thessalonians
~51 CE or 80-90 CE
DisputedGreek Words
823
Hapax Legomena
10 (1.2%)
Scholarly Division
~50% accept, 50% reject
Evidence For Authenticity
- Polycarp quotes 2 Thess 3:15 (110 CE)
- Justin Martyr references 2 Thess 2:3 (150 CE)
- Same co-senders as 1 Thessalonians: Paul, Silvanus, Timothy
- Greek style analysis by Trilling supports authenticity
- Eschatological sequence fits Jewish apocalyptic literature
- Personal signature reference (3:17) matches Paul's practice
- Thanksgiving formula matches 1 Thessalonians structure
- Wanamaker argues for authentic Pauline authorship (1990)
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Contradicts 1 Thess 5:2 ("like a thief") vs. 2 Thess 2:3-12 (signs first)
- 10 unique words not found elsewhere in Paul
- More formal structure than 1 Thessalonians (Hughes 1989)
- "Man of lawlessness" concept absent from other letters
- Emphasis on written vs. oral tradition (2:15, 3:14)
- Warning against forged letters (2:2) suggests later problem
- Trilling, Krodel, Marxsen argue against authenticity
- Different attitude toward work (3:6-12) vs. 1 Thess 4:11-12
Colossians
~62 CE or 70-80 CE
DisputedGreek Words
1,582
Hapax Legomena
34 (2.1%)
Scholarly Division
~60% reject, 40% accept
Evidence For Authenticity
- Marcion includes in canon (140 CE)
- Names match Philemon: Onesimus (4:9), Epaphras (4:12), Archippus (4:17)
- Mark mentioned as Barnabas's cousin (4:10) - specific detail
- Luke the physician reference (4:14) fits Paul's companions
- Tychicus as letter bearer (4:7-8) matches Eph 6:21-22
- O'Brien, Bruce, Carson defend Pauline authorship
- Prison setting fits Paul's Roman imprisonment
- Theological development fits Paul's ministry progression
- Personal greetings (4:7-18) match Paul's practice
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Average sentence length: 21.6 words vs. 16.2 in undisputed letters
- Col 1:15-20 Christ hymn uses non-Pauline vocabulary
- "Fullness" (pleroma) used 2x vs. 0x in undisputed letters
- "Body" metaphor differs from 1 Corinthians usage
- Missing key Pauline terms: justification, salvation, law
- Baptism as past event (2:12) vs. future hope in Romans 6
- Household codes (3:18-4:1) more developed than earlier letters
- Bujard's statistical analysis shows stylistic differences
- Lohse, Schweizer, Gnilka argue against authenticity
Ephesians
~62 CE or 80-90 CE
DisputedGreek Words
2,422
Unique Vocabulary
116 words (4.8%)
Scholarly Division
~80% reject, 20% accept
Evidence For Authenticity
- Ignatius quotes Eph 5:25-29 (110 CE)
- Polycarp references Eph 4:26 (110 CE)
- P46 papyrus (200 CE) includes Ephesians
- Marcion includes in canon (140 CE) as "Laodiceans"
- Self-identification as Paul (1:1, 3:1, 4:1)
- Prison references (3:1, 4:1, 6:20) fit Paul's situation
- Theological themes consistent with developed Pauline thought
- Lincoln, Arnold support Pauline authorship
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Eph 1:3-14 = single 200+ word sentence in Greek
- 38 parallel passages with Colossians, many verbatim
- P46, Vaticanus, Sinaiticus lack "in Ephesus" (1:1)
- Impersonal tone despite Paul's 3-year Ephesian ministry
- Church as universal institution vs. local communities
- Apostles and prophets as foundation (2:20) suggests later period
- Gentiles as recipients (2:11, 3:1) vs. established church
- Mitton statistical analysis shows non-Pauline authorship
- Goodspeed argues for post-Pauline composition (1933)
- Absence of eschatological urgency vs. other letters
1 Timothy
~100-110 CE
PseudonymousGreek Words
1,591
Unique Vocabulary
306 words (19.2%)
Scholarly Consensus
~95% reject authenticity
Evidence For Authenticity
- Clement of Alexandria quotes 1 Tim 6:20 (200 CE)
- Irenaeus attributes to Paul (180 CE)
- Muratorian Fragment includes Pastorals (200 CE)
- Personal details: Alexander, Hymenaeus (1:20), Phygelus, Hermogenes
- Timothy's grandmother Lois, mother Eunice (2 Tim 1:5)
- References to Paul's persecution at Antioch, Iconium, Lystra
- Johnson argues for secretary hypothesis
- Towner defends modified authenticity view
Evidence Against Authenticity
- "Godliness" (eusebeia) used 8x vs. 0x in undisputed letters
- "Sound doctrine" (hygiaino) used 6x - ecclesiastical term
- Bishop/overseer distinction (3:1-7) vs. Phil 1:1 equivalence
- Deacon qualifications (3:8-13) show institutional development
- Widow registration (5:3-16) indicates later church structure
- Gnostic terminology: "antitheses of falsely called knowledge" (6:20)
- No references in early 2nd century (missing from P46)
- Harrison's statistical analysis (1921) demonstrates non-Pauline vocabulary
- Historical situation doesn't fit Paul's known itinerary
- Dibelius, Conzelmann, Quinn argue against authenticity
2 Timothy
~100-110 CE
PseudonymousGreek Words
1,238
Unique Vocabulary
232 words (18.7%)
Scholarly Consensus
~90% reject authenticity
Evidence For Authenticity
- Most personal of Pastoral letters
- Specific details: cloak at Troas (4:13), parchments, scrolls
- Alexander the metalworker opposition (4:14-15)
- Demas desertion, Luke's faithfulness (4:10-11)
- Winter season, Eubulus, Pudens, Linus, Claudia greetings (4:21)
- Onesiphorus family details (1:16-18, 4:19)
- Authentic farewell discourse elements
- Guthrie argues for genuine Pauline fragments
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Shares 175 words exclusively with other Pastorals
- "Sound words" (2:2), "pattern of sound words" (1:13) - later terminology
- "Deposit" (paratheke) concept (1:12, 14) suggests fixed tradition
- Paul as prototypical martyr figure for later church
- Persecution accounts (3:10-12) don't match Acts chronology
- Final abandonment scenario contradicts Acts 28
- Hymenaeus and Philetus teaching (2:17-18) fits later controversies
- Statistical vocabulary analysis matches other Pastorals
- Literary testament genre common in post-apostolic period
Titus
~100-110 CE
PseudonymousGreek Words
659
Unique Vocabulary
132 words (20.0%)
Scholarly Consensus
~95% reject authenticity
Evidence For Authenticity
- Clement of Alexandria references Titus (200 CE)
- Tertullian attributes to Paul (220 CE)
- Titus known as Paul's associate from Galatians 2:1-3
- Crete mission plausible during Paul's travels
- Cretan character quote (1:12) from Epimenides - cultural knowledge
- Zenas the lawyer, Apollos references (3:13) - specific names
- Fee argues for authentic core with later development
Evidence Against Authenticity
- Shares 54 words exclusively with other Pastorals
- Elder/bishop terminology (1:5-7) shows developed hierarchy
- "Godliness" (eusebeia) used 2x - Pastoral letters theme
- Household codes (2:1-10) more elaborate than earlier letters
- Crete mission unattested in Acts or other authentic letters
- "Sound doctrine" emphasis (1:9, 2:1) indicates institutional period
- Salvation as past event (3:5) vs. future hope in Romans
- Absence of justification language vs. emphasis on good works
- Dibelius-Conzelmann commentary standard against authenticity
- Post-apostolic concerns with church order and respectability
Summary
Linguistic analysis, historical evidence, and theological development studies support a three-tier classification:
- Undisputed (7 letters): Universal scholarly acceptance based on consistent vocabulary, style, and historical fit.
- Disputed (3 letters): Mixed evidence with genuine scholarly debate about authenticity.
- Pseudonymous (3 letters): Strong evidence against Pauline authorship, likely written 30-50 years after Paul's death.
These authorship determinations help reconstruct early Christian theological development and the evolution from Paul's charismatic leadership to institutional church structures.