Introduction
The New Testament contains thirteen letters traditionally attributed to the apostle Paul, the early Christian missionary who spread Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. Modern scholarship, however, questions whether Paul actually wrote all these letters.
Based on differences in writing style, vocabulary, theological concepts, and historical context, scholars typically divide these letters into three categories:
Romans
~56-57 CE
AuthenticPaul's most comprehensive theological work, Romans presents a systematic exposition of his understanding of salvation, justification by faith, and the relationship between Jews and Gentiles.
- Consistent with Paul's vocabulary and style
- Early attribution by church fathers (Clement of Rome, ~95 CE)
- Contains personal greetings to Romans Paul likely knew
- Fits historical context of Paul's ministry
- Theological consistency with other undisputed letters
- Romans 16 may have been a separate letter (addressed to Ephesus)
- Some manuscripts lack final doxology (16:25-27)
- No significant scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
1 Corinthians
~53-54 CE
AuthenticWritten to address problems in the Corinthian church, this letter deals with practical issues like division, sexual immorality, lawsuits among believers, marriage, and spiritual gifts.
- Direct historical references matching Paul's life
- Mentions collection for Jerusalem (fits Acts timeline)
- Quoted by Clement of Rome (95 CE)
- Personal tone consistent with Paul's style
- Multiple cross-references with 2 Corinthians
- Some sections may be later interpolations (14:34-35)
- Possibly a composite of multiple letters
- No significant scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
2 Corinthians
~55-56 CE
AuthenticThis emotionally charged letter contains Paul's defense of his apostleship against critics, his joy over reconciliation with the Corinthian church, and instructions about collecting funds for believers in Jerusalem.
- Strong personal tone matches Paul's character
- Autobiographical details consistent with Acts
- Mentions his "thorn in the flesh" (unique personal detail)
- Similar vocabulary to other undisputed letters
- Early attestation by church fathers
- Abrupt transitions suggest composite nature (6:14-7:1)
- Tone shifts dramatically between sections
- Chapters 10-13 may be a separate "severe letter"
Galatians
~48-55 CE
AuthenticWritten to counter Judaizing teachers, Galatians contains Paul's passionate defense of justification by faith alone and includes important autobiographical details about his conversion and early ministry.
- Extensive autobiographical details
- Passionate, direct style characteristic of Paul
- Consistent with Paul's theology of justification
- Contains unique conflict account with Peter (Gal 2:11-14)
- Early church attestation (Marcion's canon, ~140 CE)
- No significant scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
Philippians
~60-62 CE
AuthenticWritten from prison, this warm letter to the Philippian church expresses Paul's gratitude for their support, encourages them to remain unified, and emphasizes finding joy in Christ despite suffering.
- Personal tone consistent with Paul's style
- Prison setting matches Paul's known imprisonments
- Reflects close relationship with Philippian church
- Contains Christ hymn (2:5-11) that fits Pauline theology
- Early attestation by Polycarp (~110 CE)
- No significant scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
1 Thessalonians
~50-51 CE
AuthenticLikely Paul's earliest surviving letter, 1 Thessalonians addresses concerns about the fate of deceased believers, encourages the church to maintain its faith amid persecution, and discusses Christ's return.
- Simple theology consistent with early Christian teaching
- Personal details match Acts account of Paul in Thessalonica
- Expectation of imminent return of Christ (early Christian belief)
- Included in earliest collections of Paul's letters
- Referenced by early church writers (Ignatius, ~110 CE)
- No significant scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
Philemon
~60-62 CE
AuthenticPaul's shortest letter is a personal appeal to Philemon to receive back his runaway slave Onesimus, now a Christian convert, as a brother rather than a slave.
- Highly personal nature with specific details
- Prison setting matches Paul's known imprisonments
- Names match other Pauline associates (Epaphras, Mark, etc.)
- No theological motivation for forgery
- Early attestation (Marcion's canon, ~140 CE)
- No significant scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
2 Thessalonians
~51-52 CE or 80-90 CE
DisputedThis letter addresses confusion about Christ's return, countering claims that the Day of the Lord had already arrived and warning that certain events must occur first.
- Similar opening and closing to 1 Thessalonians
- Same co-senders: Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy
- Early attestation (Polycarp, ~110 CE)
- Addresses logical follow-up concerns to 1 Thessalonians
- Some scholars see eschatology as compatible with Paul's
- Different eschatology from 1 Thessalonians (delayed parousia)
- More formal style with less personal content
- References to forgery (2:2, 3:17) suggest later controversy
- Contains 10 words not used elsewhere by Paul
- Unusual emphasis on Paul's authority and signature
Colossians
~60-62 CE or 70-80 CE
DisputedWritten to counter a developing heresy, Colossians emphasizes Christ's supremacy over all spiritual powers and warns against ascetic practices and angel worship.
- Personal details and greetings consistent with Paul
- Connection with Philemon (undisputed letter)
- Thematic continuity with earlier Pauline theology
- Early attestation (Marcion's canon, ~140 CE)
- Many scholars see theological developments as authentic
- 34 hapax legomena (words used only once)
- Long, complex sentences unlike Paul's typical style
- Developed cosmic Christology (Christ as cosmic ruler)
- Different vocabulary for key concepts (church, body, fullness)
- Absence of key Pauline terms (justification, law)
Ephesians
~60-62 CE or 80-90 CE
DisputedA majestic theological treatise focusing on the unity of the church, the reconciliation of Jews and Gentiles, and the cosmic significance of Christ's work, likely a circular letter to multiple churches.
- Early attestation (Ignatius, Polycarp, ~110 CE)
- Theological themes consistent with Paul's thought
- Self-identification as Paul (1:1, 3:1)
- Presence in early canonical lists
- Some scholars attribute style differences to purpose
- 41% of vocabulary not found in undisputed letters
- Extremely long sentences (Eph 1:3-14 is 202 words)
- Impersonal tone despite Paul's history with Ephesus
- Dependent on Colossians (9 parallels, often verbatim)
- Church as established institution rather than local community
- Absence of eschatological urgency present in undisputed letters
1 Timothy
~90-100 CE
PseudonymousThis letter provides instructions to Timothy for organizing church leadership, combating false teaching, and addressing various community issues, with emphasis on maintaining tradition and proper conduct.
- Traditional attribution since early church
- Personal details and references to Paul's life
- Early attestation (Polycarp, ~110 CE)
- Some scholars attribute style to Paul's advancing age
- Secretary hypothesis explains linguistic differences
- 306 words not found elsewhere in Paul's writings
- Developed ecclesiastical structure (bishops, elders, deacons)
- Concerns about second-generation issues
- Historical setting doesn't fit Paul's known timeline
- "Deposit of faith" concept suggests later period
- Different vocabulary for core concepts (e.g., "godliness" used 10 times)
2 Timothy
~90-100 CE
PseudonymousPresented as Paul's final letter before execution, 2 Timothy contains personal encouragement to Timothy to remain faithful, guard sound teaching, and endure suffering, serving as Paul's spiritual testament.
- Most personal of the Pastoral Epistles
- Specific personal details (cloak, scrolls, parchments)
- Early attestation (Polycarp, ~110 CE)
- Authentic-sounding "farewell discourse" elements
- Some scholars view as Paul's actual final testament
- Vocabulary consistent with other Pastoral letters
- Similar concerns about preserving tradition
- Historical inconsistencies with Paul's known timeline
- Some personal details appear contrived or literary
- Concept of "sound doctrine" as fixed deposit
- Presents Paul as exemplary martyr for later church
Titus
~90-100 CE
PseudonymousTitus contains instructions for organizing the church in Crete, appointing qualified leadership, promoting sound doctrine, and encouraging proper Christian behavior that adorns the gospel.
- Traditional attribution since early church
- Early attestation (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria)
- Connection to known Pauline associate (Titus)
- Some scholars attribute style differences to purpose
- Presence in early canonical lists
- Vocabulary consistent with other Pastoral letters
- Mission to Crete unattested in Acts or other letters
- Emphasis on "godliness" and "sound doctrine"
- Ecclesiastical structure more developed than Paul's time
- Concern with household codes and social respectability
- 13 terms shared exclusively with Pastoral Epistles
Conclusions
The evidence for disputed authorship presents a complex picture, with scholars typically recognizing three categories:
- Undisputed Letters (Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon) show consistent style and vocabulary that scholars almost universally attribute to Paul.
- Disputed Letters (2 Thessalonians, Colossians, Ephesians) show mixed characteristics, with scholarly opinion divided about their authenticity.
- Pastoral Letters (1 & 2 Timothy, Titus) show the most significant differences from Paul's undisputed works and are widely considered pseudonymous works written to address church situations after Paul's death.
Understanding these authorship questions helps us better interpret these texts within their historical context. Rather than undermining their importance, recognizing different authors helps explain theological developments in early Christianity as the church moved from its first to second generation of leadership.