Introduction
Thirteen New Testament letters claim Pauline authorship. Modern scholarship generally divides them into three categories based on linguistic analysis, theological development, and historical evidence, though scholarly opinion continues to evolve:
Romans
~57 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Romans is Paul's longest and most systematic theological work, written to introduce himself to the Roman Christian community. The letter explicitly names Tertius as the scribe (16:22).
- Early Christian writers reference Romans by the late 1st century
- Contains extensive personal greetings (16:3-16) suggesting genuine relationships
- Mentions Paul's mission plans to Spain, consistent with his broader ministry
- References collection for Jerusalem saints, matching other authentic letters
- Theological vocabulary and style consistent with undisputed Pauline corpus
- Included in early canonical lists and manuscript collections
- Tertius named as scribe - specific detail supporting authenticity
- No serious scholarly challenges to Pauline authorship
- Some textual variations in manuscript traditions, particularly regarding the final doxology
- Questions about whether Romans 16 was originally part of the letter or a separate note
- These issues relate to textual transmission rather than authorship
- Scholarly consensus strongly supports Pauline authorship
1 Corinthians
~54 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Written to address specific problems in the Corinthian church, including divisions, sexual immorality, and questions about spiritual gifts. Co-authored with Sosthenes (1:1).
- Clement of Rome quotes 1 Cor 13:4-7 verbatim (95 CE)
- Matches Acts 18:12-17 Sosthenes reference
- Names Chloe's people as informants (1:11)
- Mentions Apollos ministry matching Acts 18:24-19:1
- Collection for Jerusalem matches Romans 15:25-26
- Crispus and Gaius baptisms match Acts 18:8
- Stephanas household details (1:16, 16:15-18)
- P46 papyrus includes 1 Corinthians (200 CE)
- Pre-Pauline creed in 15:3-8 suggests authenticity
- 1 Cor 14:34-35 may be interpolation (Western manuscripts place after v.40)
- 1 Cor 11:2-16 head covering passage possibly added later
- Some scholars see composite of 2-3 letters
- Fee, Barrett, and others defend literary unity
2 Corinthians
~55-56 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Universally accepted as authentic, though many scholars believe it may be a composite of multiple letters. The letter reveals Paul's complex relationship with the Corinthian church and contains some of his most personal reflections. Co-authored with Timothy (1:1).
- Arabia visit reference matches Galatians 1:17
- Third heaven vision (12:2-4) - highly personal detail
- Thorn in flesh (12:7) - unique Pauline reference
- Titus mission details cross-reference with Galatians 2:1
- Macedonia donation details (8:1-5, 9:2-4)
- Catalog of sufferings (11:23-28) matches Acts accounts
- Damascus escape in basket (11:32-33) matches Acts 9:25
- False apostles polemic fits Paul's ministry context
- 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 interrupts flow - possible interpolation
- Chapters 10-13 drastically different tone ("tearful letter")
- Betz argues for 5 separate letter fragments
- 2 Cor 8 and 9 both discuss collection - separate letters?
- Furnish sees at least 2 letters combined
Galatians
~48-55 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Written in response to a crisis over circumcision and adherence to Jewish law in Paul's Galatian churches. Paul claims to have written the final portion in his own hand with "large letters" (6:11).
- Marcion includes in his canon (140 CE)
- 3-year Arabia sojourn (1:17) - specific chronology
- 14-year gap before Jerusalem council (2:1)
- Peter confrontation at Antioch (2:11-14) - embarrassing detail
- Cephas/Peter name variants match other letters
- James/John/Cephas as pillars (2:9) - Jerusalem leadership
- Barnabas hypocrisy reference (2:13) matches Acts
- Circumcision controversy fits historical context
- Manual signature claim (6:11) - authentication detail
- Agitation tone fits crisis situation
- South vs North Galatia debate affects dating
- Virtually no serious challenges to Pauline authorship
- Burton, Lightfoot, Bruce defend authenticity
Philippians
~61-62 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Written from prison, likely during Paul's Roman imprisonment. The letter expresses gratitude for financial support and contains the famous Christ hymn (2:6-11). Co-authored with Timothy (1:1).
- Polycarp quotes Philippians 2:10 (110 CE)
- Praetorian guard reference (1:13) fits Roman imprisonment
- Caesar's household (4:22) - specific Roman detail
- Epaphroditus illness and recovery (2:25-30)
- Partnership since "first day of gospel" (1:5) - Lydia conversion
- Euodia and Syntyche conflict (4:2-3) - specific names
- Clement who worked with Paul (4:3)
- Christ hymn (2:6-11) predates Paul - shows early tradition
- Financial support acknowledgment (4:15-18)
- Possible compilation of 2-3 separate letters
- 3:2-4:1 interrupts thank-you theme
- Partition theories by Hawthorne, Fee disputed by others
- No serious challenges to Pauline authorship
1 Thessalonians
~50 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Universally accepted as authentic and likely Paul's earliest surviving letter. Addresses concerns about the return of Christ and encourages the Thessalonian Christians in the face of persecution. Co-authored with Silvanus and Timothy (1:1).
- Ignatius alludes to 1 Thess 5:17 (110 CE)
- Timothy's return from Thessalonica (3:6) matches Acts 18:5
- Silvanus co-authorship matches Acts 15:22-18:5
- Satan hindered travel (2:18) - personal frustration
- Jewish persecution theme (2:14-16) fits historical context
- Manual labor emphasis (4:11) matches Paul's practice
- Imminent parousia expectation (4:15-17) - early Christian belief
- Simplest theological language of Paul's letters
- P30 papyrus fragment (250 CE) contains 1 Thess 4:12-5:18, 5:25-28
- Anti-Jewish polemic (2:14-16) questioned by some
- Pearson argues against authenticity of 2:13-16
- Majority of scholars defend authenticity
Philemon
~61-62 CE
AuthenticConsensus: Generally accepted as authentic, though some recent scholarship has raised questions. This brief personal letter concerns the slave Onesimus and demonstrates Paul's approach to social relationships within the early Christian community. Addressed to Philemon, Apphia, and Archippus.
- Marcion includes in canon (140 CE) - earliest attestation
- Jerome confirms in Vulgate (400 CE)
- Names match Colossians: Epaphras (v.23/Col 1:7), Mark (v.24/Col 4:10)
- Aristarchus, Demas, Luke mentioned (v.24) - matches Col 4:10-14
- Archippus recipient (v.2) matches Col 4:17 reference
- "Fellow prisoner" Epaphras (v.23) fits imprisonment setting
- Onesimus pun on "useful/useless" (v.11) - wordplay typical of Paul
- No theological motivation for forgery
- Personal details too specific for fabrication
- Recent scholarship has noted similarities to later rhetorical exercises
- Some scholars question the convenient nature of the names (Philemon = "kind," Onesimus = "useful")
- Possible connections to rhetorical school practices of composing fictional letters
- However, these concerns remain minority positions in scholarship
2 Thessalonians
~51 CE or 80-90 CE
DisputedConsensus: Disputed authorship with opinion divided. Some scholars argue for authenticity while others consider it pseudonymous. The letter addresses concerns about the timing of Christ's return and the need for continued work while waiting.
- Polycarp quotes 2 Thess 3:15 (110 CE)
- Justin Martyr references 2 Thess 2:3 (150 CE)
- Same co-senders as 1 Thessalonians: Paul, Silvanus, Timothy
- Greek style analysis by Trilling supports authenticity
- Eschatological sequence fits Jewish apocalyptic literature
- Personal signature reference (3:17) matches Paul's practice
- Thanksgiving formula matches 1 Thessalonians structure
- Wanamaker argues for authentic Pauline authorship (1990)
- Appears to contradict 1 Thessalonians on the timing of Christ's return
- Contains vocabulary not found elsewhere in the Pauline corpus
- More formal structure than 1 Thessalonians (Hughes 1989)
- "Man of lawlessness" concept absent from other letters
- Emphasis on written vs. oral tradition (2:15, 3:14)
- Warning against forged letters (2:2) suggests later problem
- Trilling, Krodel, Marxsen argue against authenticity
- Different attitude toward work (3:6-12) vs. 1 Thess 4:11-12
Colossians
~62 CE or 70-80 CE
DisputedConsensus: Disputed authorship with many scholars questioning Pauline authorship based on vocabulary, style, and theological development. However, some scholars continue to defend its authenticity, particularly noting connections with Philemon.
- Marcion includes in canon (140 CE)
- Names match Philemon: Onesimus (4:9), Epaphras (4:12), Archippus (4:17)
- Mark mentioned as Barnabas's cousin (4:10) - specific detail
- Luke the physician reference (4:14) fits Paul's companions
- Tychicus as letter bearer (4:7-8) matches Eph 6:21-22
- O'Brien, Bruce, Carson defend Pauline authorship
- Prison setting fits Paul's Roman imprisonment
- Theological development fits Paul's ministry progression
- Personal greetings (4:7-18) match Paul's practice
- Significantly longer average sentence length compared to undisputed letters
- Col 1:15-20 Christ hymn uses non-Pauline vocabulary
- Distinctive vocabulary including "fullness" (pleroma) not found in undisputed letters
- "Body" metaphor differs from 1 Corinthians usage
- Missing key Pauline terms: justification, salvation, law
- Baptism as past event (2:12) vs. future hope in Romans 6
- Household codes (3:18-4:1) more developed than earlier letters
- Bujard's statistical analysis shows stylistic differences
- Lohse, Schweizer, Gnilka argue against authenticity
Ephesians
~62 CE or 80-90 CE
DisputedConsensus: Traditionally considered pseudonymous by many scholars, though recent surveys suggest more divided opinion than previously thought. The letter's relationship to Colossians and its distinctive vocabulary and style remain points of debate.
- Ignatius quotes Eph 5:25-29 (110 CE)
- Polycarp references Eph 4:26 (110 CE)
- P46 papyrus (200 CE) includes Ephesians
- Marcion includes in canon (140 CE) as "Laodiceans"
- Self-identification as Paul (1:1, 3:1, 4:1)
- Prison references (3:1, 4:1, 6:20) fit Paul's situation
- Theological themes consistent with developed Pauline thought
- Lincoln, Arnold support Pauline authorship
- Extremely long sentences, including one of over 200 words in Greek (1:3-14)
- Extensive parallels with Colossians, many nearly verbatim
- P46, Vaticanus, Sinaiticus lack "in Ephesus" (1:1)
- Impersonal tone despite Paul's 3-year Ephesian ministry
- Church as universal institution vs. local communities
- Apostles and prophets as foundation (2:20) suggests later period
- Gentiles as recipients (2:11, 3:1) vs. established church
- Mitton statistical analysis shows non-Pauline authorship
- Goodspeed argues for post-Pauline composition (1933)
- Absence of eschatological urgency vs. other letters
1 Timothy
~100-110 CE
PseudonymousConsensus: Most critical scholars question Pauline authorship of the Pastoral Epistles based on vocabulary, style, church organization, and theological development. However, some scholars continue to defend authenticity or propose models of Pauline involvement with later editing.
- Clement of Alexandria quotes 1 Tim 6:20 (200 CE)
- Irenaeus attributes to Paul (180 CE)
- Muratorian Fragment includes Pastorals (200 CE)
- Personal details: Alexander, Hymenaeus (1:20), Phygelus, Hermogenes
- Timothy's grandmother Lois, mother Eunice (2 Tim 1:5)
- References to Paul's persecution at Antioch, Iconium, Lystra
- Johnson argues for secretary hypothesis
- Towner defends modified authenticity view
- Frequent use of "godliness" (eusebeia) not found in undisputed letters
- Emphasis on "sound doctrine" using terminology typical of later ecclesiastical development
- Bishop/overseer distinction (3:1-7) vs. Phil 1:1 equivalence
- Deacon qualifications (3:8-13) show institutional development
- Widow registration (5:3-16) indicates later church structure
- Gnostic terminology: "antitheses of falsely called knowledge" (6:20)
- No references in early 2nd century (missing from P46)
- Harrison's statistical analysis (1921) demonstrates non-Pauline vocabulary
- Historical situation doesn't fit Paul's known itinerary
- Dibelius, Conzelmann, Quinn argue against authenticity
2 Timothy
~100-110 CE
PseudonymousConsensus: Most critical scholars question Pauline authorship, though 2 Timothy contains more personal details than the other Pastoral Epistles, leading some to propose it contains authentic Pauline fragments or represents a different compositional process.
- Most personal of Pastoral letters
- Specific details: cloak at Troas (4:13), parchments, scrolls
- Alexander the metalworker opposition (4:14-15)
- Demas desertion, Luke's faithfulness (4:10-11)
- Winter season, Eubulus, Pudens, Linus, Claudia greetings (4:21)
- Onesiphorus family details (1:16-18, 4:19)
- Authentic farewell discourse elements
- Guthrie argues for genuine Pauline fragments
- Shares significant vocabulary exclusively with other Pastoral Epistles
- "Sound words" (2:2), "pattern of sound words" (1:13) - later terminology
- "Deposit" (paratheke) concept (1:12, 14) suggests fixed tradition
- Paul as prototypical martyr figure for later church
- Persecution accounts (3:10-12) don't match Acts chronology
- Final abandonment scenario contradicts Acts 28
- Hymenaeus and Philetus teaching (2:17-18) fits later controversies
- Statistical vocabulary analysis matches other Pastorals
- Literary testament genre common in post-apostolic period
Titus
~100-110 CE
PseudonymousConsensus: Most critical scholars question Pauline authorship based on vocabulary, style, and ecclesiastical development. The letter shares many characteristics with the other Pastoral Epistles that distinguish them from the undisputed Pauline corpus.
- Clement of Alexandria references Titus (200 CE)
- Tertullian attributes to Paul (220 CE)
- Titus known as Paul's associate from Galatians 2:1-3
- Crete mission plausible during Paul's travels
- Cretan character quote (1:12) from Epimenides - cultural knowledge
- Zenas the lawyer, Apollos references (3:13) - specific names
- Fee argues for authentic core with later development
- Shares distinctive vocabulary with other Pastoral Epistles
- Elder/bishop terminology (1:5-7) shows developed hierarchy
- Uses "godliness" (eusebeia) terminology characteristic of Pastoral Epistles
- Household codes (2:1-10) more elaborate than earlier letters
- Crete mission unattested in Acts or other authentic letters
- "Sound doctrine" emphasis (1:9, 2:1) indicates institutional period
- Salvation as past event (3:5) vs. future hope in Romans
- Absence of justification language vs. emphasis on good works
- Dibelius-Conzelmann commentary standard against authenticity
- Post-apostolic concerns with church order and respectability
Summary
Contemporary scholarship generally recognizes a three-tier classification of the Pauline letters, though scholarly opinion continues to evolve:
- Undisputed (7 letters): Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon enjoy widespread scholarly acceptance as authentically Pauline based on consistent vocabulary, style, and historical context.
- Disputed (3 letters): 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, and Ephesians show mixed evidence, with ongoing scholarly debate about their authorship. Recent surveys suggest more nuanced positions than traditional binary accept/reject categories.
- Questioned (3 letters): The Pastoral Epistles (1-2 Timothy, Titus) are questioned by many scholars based on vocabulary, style, ecclesiastical development, and historical context, though some continue to defend various models of Pauline involvement.
These authorship questions illuminate the development of early Christian thought and the evolution from the earliest Christian communities to more structured ecclesiastical organizations. Understanding the compositional context of these letters helps scholars trace theological development in the first and second centuries CE.