The Pentateuch

Introduction

The Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) is traditionally attributed to Moses (c. 1400 BCE). Modern scholarship, however, indicates these texts were written by multiple authors over centuries and compiled long after Moses' time.

This page examines evidence challenging Mosaic authorship through anachronisms, linguistic features, and narrative inconsistencies that reveal a complex compositional history.

The Documentary Hypothesis

The Documentary Hypothesis identifies four main sources in the Pentateuch:

These sources were combined by later editors during the Persian period (539-332 BCE), centuries after Moses' traditional lifetime.

Evidence

Anachronisms

The text contains numerous references to people, places, and events that existed long after Moses:

• "Dan" in Genesis 14:14 - a city renamed centuries after Moses (Judges 18:29) The city was originally called Laish until the Danites conquered it during the Judges period, long after Moses' death.
• Kings of Israel reference in Genesis 36:31 before any Israelite monarchy existed
• Philistines in Genesis 21 and 26, who arrived in Canaan after 1200 BCE Archaeological evidence shows the Philistines were part of the "Sea Peoples" who arrived in Canaan around 1175 BCE, centuries after Abraham's era.
• Arameans in Deuteronomy 26:5, who emerged as a significant group after 1100 BCE
• Moses' death account in Deuteronomy 34

Multiple Styles and Duplicate Stories

The text contains different writing styles and parallel accounts with variations:

• Two creation accounts: Genesis 1:1-2:3 (God creates humans last) vs. Genesis 2:4-25 (man created before plants and animals) In Genesis 1, humans are created after plants and animals on day 6. In Genesis 2, man is created, then plants, then animals, then woman—a different sequence.
• Two flood narratives with contradictory details: 7 pairs of clean animals (Gen 7:2-3, J) vs. 1 pair of each animal (Gen 6:19-20, P) The flood duration also differs: 40 days and nights in the J source vs. 150 days in the P source.
• Three "wife-sister" narratives (Genesis 12:10-20, 20:1-18, 26:1-11) with similar plot structures
• Different divine names for the mountain of God: Sinai (Exodus 19:11, J/E) vs. Horeb (Deuteronomy 1:6, D) The different names reflect different source traditions, with J/E preferring "Sinai" and D consistently using "Horeb" for the same location.
• Multiple names for Moses' father-in-law: Reuel (Exodus 2:18), Jethro (Exodus 3:1), and Hobab (Judges 4:11)

Linguistic Evidence

The Hebrew language shows features from different historical periods:

• Late Hebrew forms and Aramaic loanwords absent in Moses' era Words like "dat" (law) in Deuteronomy 33:2 are Persian-era Aramaic loanwords that entered Hebrew vocabulary only after the exile.
• Distinct vocabulary patterns: P source uses "edah" for congregation while D uses "qahal" These consistent vocabulary differences help scholars identify different source documents within the text.
• The phrase "to this day" appears throughout (Gen 35:20, Deut 3:14), suggesting writing long after events In Genesis 35:20, the narrator notes Rachel's tomb pillar remains "to this day," indicating substantial time had passed since her burial.
• Different divine names: YHWH (J), Elohim (E), and El Shaddai (P) reflect different traditions In Exodus 6:3 (P), God states the patriarchs knew him as El Shaddai, not YHWH—contradicting J's use of YHWH from Genesis 2 onward.

Implications

Development

The sources reflect evolving Israelite religious concepts over centuries. Early J source portrays an anthropomorphic deity, while later P source presents a more transcendent God. This evolutionary view contrasts with the idea that the entire law was given at once at Sinai.

Human Elements

Multiple authorship evidence highlights scripture's human dimension, suggesting a complex relationship between divine inspiration and human composition that developed through Israel's historical experience.

Authority

If Moses didn't write the Pentateuch, these texts represent Israel's collective religious experience over generations rather than direct Mosaic authorship. Their authority derives from their role in Israel's covenant relationship with God, not their human author.

Conclusion

Evidence strongly indicates the Pentateuch emerged through complex composition and editing over centuries rather than Mosaic authorship. This understanding doesn't diminish these texts' religious significance but invites appreciation of them as products of Israel's developing religious tradition.

Historical-critical examination reveals how these foundational texts reflect ancient Israel's evolving religious consciousness and their enduring theological value despite their complex origins.